Sir Richard Francis Burton

Sir Richard Francis Burton (1821–1890) was a renowned 19th-century figure described as an African explorer, soldier, geographer, cartographer, ethnologist, Orientalist, writer, poet, diplomat and linguist.

Burton's achievements spanned continents and disciplines, establishing him as one of the most charismatic and controversial individuals of his time. He is celebrated for his extensive travels and explorations across Asia, Africa, and the Americas, his prolific literary output of nearly 40 to over 50 books, and his remarkable proficiency in an estimated 24 to 29 languages and innumerable dialects. Burton's legacy includes daring explorations, controversial translations of Eastern texts, and a lifelong fascination with cultures deemed the 'Other' by Victorian society.

Early Life and Education

Richard Francis Burton was born on March 19, 1821, in Torquay, Devon, England. His father, Light Colonel Joseph Netterville Burton, was an officer in the British Army, and his mother, Martha Baker, hailed from a wealthy English family. The family belonged to the lower nobility. Shortly after his birth the family began a wandering life, often moving to the continent due to health problems, with early spells living in France (Tours) and Italy.

This early exposure to diverse environments imbued Burton with a linguistic foundation, laying the groundwork for his later prowess. He quickly mastered French, which was likely his first foreign language. He was also exposed to a multitude of tongues early in life and in his youth he learned Italian, Neapolitan, Latin, Greek and the Romani language and dialects. He reputedly spoke Latin from the age of three and Greek at four. The classical training he received in Latin and Greek became a cornerstone of his intellectual arsenal.

In 1840, Burton matriculated at Trinity College, Oxford University. Despite his intelligence, he clashed with his teachers and peers, even challenging a fellow student to a duel over a mocking comment about his mustache. While there, he began studying Arabic. However, his rebellious spirit led to his permanent expulsion after barely two years in 1842 for leaving the university to attend a horse race, a violation of college rules.

Service in India and Ethnographic Beginnings (1842–1849)

Following his expulsion, Burton joined the army of the East India Company, receiving an army commission with the help of his father. He embarked as an ensign on June 18, 1842, at age 21. During the four months at sea heading to Bombay, India, he intensively studied Hindustani.

During his seven years in India (1842–1849), Burton dedicated himself to Oriental languages. He claimed to spend twelve hours a day learning Hindustani. His success was rapid: he passed the Hindustani examination in April 1843 and the Gujarati examination in December 1843, resulting in his appointment as interpreter to his regiment. He also began studying Sanskrit and Marathi.

He eventually passed the Persian examination in 1847 and the Sindhi and Punjabi examinations in 1848. This commitment to immersion in Eastern languages became a hallmark of his career. His exceptional knowledge, coupled with his command of several Indian languages and ability to analyze social organizations, provoked the jealousy of other British officers, who condescendingly referred to him with a racial slur.

In 1844, his regiment moved to Karachi, Sindh. He served as an assistant canal surveyor and traveled extensively throughout Sindh from 1844 to 1849. During this period, Burton adopted a disguise, often posing as Mullah Abdullah, a half-Arab, half-Persian trader of women's lingerie from Bushir. This deception granted him access to the interiors of homes, a method he used to study and potentially spy on the local populations.

Burton's work during this time established him as a precursor of the ethnographic approach to India. He published four books on Sindh, including 'Scinde or the Unhappy Valley' and 'Sindh and the Races that Inhabited the Valley of the Indus' (both 1851).

He aimed to write a study for the linguist and ethnographer. His ethnographic approach, though deeply descriptive and marked by the racist prejudices of his era, remains notable for its meticulous documentation of cultural nuances and social organizations, often focusing on the division between the pure and the impure in Sindhi society (both Hindu and Muslim).

In 1846, he fell ill with rheumatic ophthalmia, prompting two years of sick leave. He traveled to Goa and Calicut, continuing his language studies (learning Telugu and Toda) and improving his Persian and Arabic. He returned to England in March 1849 after a second attack of ophthalmia.

The Adventurer

Mecca and the Nile

Burton became a professional explorer, often funded by the Royal Geographical Society (RGS).

His most famous exploit was his journey to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina in 1853, a significant exploration of the Islamic pilgrimage. Burton undertook this journey in disguise, entering Mecca as a Muslim, "Sheikh Abdullah," amid constant risk to his life as a Westerner. He prepared meticulously by studying Arabic and customs, purifying himself, praying, reading the Qur'ān and even undergoing circumcision to authentically embody a devout Muslim.

He spent six intense days in Mecca, visiting sacred sites including the Kaaba and Mount Arafat, documenting his observations and making sketches. His account, 'Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El-Medinah and Meccah' (1855-1856), gained widespread acclaim in England and made him famous for life.

Between 1854 and 1856, he explored East Africa, where he was seriously injured when a spear was thrust into his cheek. He visited Harar, considered the fourth holiest city of Islam, and Berbera, where he heard of an 'inland sea'.

With RGS support, Burton launched an expedition in search of the source of the White Nile with John Hanning Speke in 1857. The journey, which lasted three torturous years, saw both men fall dangerously ill. They succeeded in reaching 'Lake Tanganyika' becoming the first Westerners to do so. When Burton was too sick to proceed, Speke took a small party north and reached Lake Victoria, identifying it as the source of the Nile.

This discovery led to a fierce and long-lasting public feud between Burton and Speke. Burton grew painfully jealous of Speke for upstaging him. Burton subsequently portrayed Speke as an unscrupulous, disloyal, nonentity devoid of emotion.

Speke's reputation suffered due to Burton's devastatingly condescending assessments. A scheduled debate in Bath in 1864, intended to settle the dispute, never occurred, as Speke died suddenly in a shooting accident the day before. Burton exacerbated the tragedy by claiming Speke's death was suicide to avoid exposure of his misstatements regarding the Nile sources. Although Burton was hailed as the first European to find Lake Tanganyika and was eventually knighted, Speke was denied the honor.

Diplomacy, Translations and Controversies

In 1861, Burton married Isabel Arundell. In 1863, he co-founded the Anthropological Society of London (ASL) with James Hunt, aiming to provide travelers with a platform for publishing observations on "social and sexual matters".

However, the ASL was criticized for its conservative ideology, advocating for the racist theory of polygenism (the belief in separate origins for human races) and promoting a pro-slavery stance. Burton's own attitudes toward Africans were considered deplorable, and he was known as a fierce advocate of the view that black Africans were a distinct and inferior species.

Burton transitioned into a diplomatic career, serving as British consul in various locations: Fernando Po (Equatorial Guinea), Santos (Brazil), Damascus (Syria), and Trieste (Italy/Austria-Hungary).

His favorite posting was Damascus, which he recorded as one of the happiest periods of his life. There, he and Isabel often made trips into the desert, living alongside the Bedouin, using a tent that later inspired his mausoleum design. He was eventually recalled from Damascus after a dispute with Jews, having subscribed to rumors of human sacrifice. He was reassigned to Trieste in 1872, where he served as Consul until his death.

Burton is often equally remembered for his controversial translations of Eastern erotica and literature. To circumvent strict Victorian obscenity laws, he and Foster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot formed the fictitious Kama Shastra Society of London and Benares to privately distribute these works.

In 1883, he and Arbuthnot first translated the Kama Sutra into English. This translation, while radical for its time, reflected Victorian gender/sexuality ideals and anthropologized the 'Orient' as an erotic other. They altered meanings, such as taking away a woman's right to reprove her husband for infidelity and using Hindu terms which did not appear in the original text.

Burton also produced the only complete English translation of One Thousand and One Nights (the Arabian Nights).

Death and Legacy

Burton was made a Knight Commander of St Michael and St George in 1886. He died of a heart attack in Trieste on October 20, 1890. His body was transported back to Britain and, at the insistence of his devout Catholic wife, Isabel, he was buried in the cemetery of St. Mary Magdalen's Roman Catholic Church in Mortlake.

Burton's tomb, designed by Isabel, is shaped like an Arab tent, skillfully carved from sandstone to resemble the shelter they used during their Syrian desert expeditions. The mausoleum, which holds both Richard and Isabel, includes Syrian lanterns and camel bells.

Burton's versatile talents, charismatic personality and ambiguities regarding the imperial enterprise have ensured his enduring appeal. He is often viewed as a modernist man ahead of his time, embodying critical inquiry and a "relativist conception of difference."